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The ideas presented by Bernard Rudofsky in the exhibition and book entitled Architecture Without Architects are being proposed by the author as the starting point of discussion on the condition of the architectural profession. Rudofsky focused the world's attention on architecture formed by the forces of Nature and as a result of natural development processes. The article raises the question of the future of the architectural profession seen from the perspective of the present time, whilst the technological development, in particular automation and computerization of design and construction processes, has gone so far that it is possible in the near future that man might be replaced by machines, which in turn may lead to a deep change in the architectural profession, or to its eventual complete disappearance

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19

TECHNICAL TNSACTIONS 8/2019

ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING

DOI: 10.4467/2353737XCT.19.078.10857

SUBMISSION OF THE FINAL VERSION: 10/07/2019

Krzysztof Ingarden orcid.org/0000-0001-6330-654X

kingarden@afm.edu.pl

Faculty of Architecture and Fine Arts, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Kraków University

F

A W A

 

 

O

A  

 

 

Abstract

e ideas presented by Bernard Rudofsky in the exhibition and book entitled

Architecture Without

Architects

are being proposed by the author as the starting point of discussion on the condition of the

architectural profession. Rudofsky focused the world's aention on architecture formed by the forces of

Nature and as a result of natural development processes. e article raises the question of the future of the

architectural profession seen from the perspective of the present time, whilst the technological development,

in particular automation and computerization of design and construction processes, has gone so far that it is

possible in the near future that man might be replaced by machines, which in turn may lead to a deep change

in the architectural profession, or to its eventual complete disappearance

Keywords: architecture, articial intelligence, AI, nature and architecture, BIM

Streszczenie

Autor za punkt wyjcia do dyskusji przyjmuje idee przedstawione przez Bernarda Rudofsky'ego w wysta-

wie i ksice zatytułowanej

Architecture Without Architects

, idee architektury formowanej siłami Natury

iwwyniku naturalnych procesów rozwojowych. Nastpnie stawia pytanie o przyszło architektury widzia-

nej z perspektywy czasu obecnego, w którym rozwój technologiczny, w szczególnoci automatyzacja i kom-

puteryzacja procesów projektowania i budowy, zaszedł tak daleko, i moliwe jest w nieodległej przyszłoci

zastpienie człowieka przez maszyny, co w konsekwencji doprowadzi moe do zmiany charakteru zawodu

architekta lub do jego czciowego zaniku.

Słowa kluczowe: architektura, sztuczna inteligencja, AI, natura i architektura, BIM

20

1. Architecture without architects

In the year1964 Bernard Rudofsky1 opened his famous exhibition entitled Architecture

Without Architects [1], accompanied by a book of the same title, at the Museum of

Modern Art in New York. e author states that "the history of architecture wrien and

taught at Western universities focuses on a few selected cultural circles" [1, p. 2], and that

academic textbooks describe the development of architecture in its late stages, bypassing

the early stages, emphasizing mainly the role of eminent architectural stars, or also rulers

and patrons and their magnicent residences, tombs, sacred buildings, public buildings,

pushing to the background a development history of construction serving the everyday

needs of the majority of society, i.e. ordinary people. Rudofsky's goal was to overcome this

stereotype and, through the exhibition, pay aention to architecture created anonymously,

outside selected culture-forming centres, growing out of experience and local tradition

of places, overlooked by such a selectively wrien history. Rudofsky also draws aention

to the fact that man is not the only builder of structures designed to improve everyday

functioning in the natural environment, whether it is protection against atmospheric

conditions and danger or as constructions helpful in gaining food. Animals behave

similarly, for example, chimpanzees are building sleeping platforms suspended on trees,

or beavers are constructing dams on the river, etc. Nature itself creates fascinating forms

and spaces convenient for human and animal use for shelter – caves, mounds, empty tree

trunks, etc. e author of the exhibition wanted to emphasize his willingness to overcome

the prejudices existing in developed societies to perceive the authenticity and mastery in

the constructions of the so-called primitive, carried out in cultures and regions distant

from civilization, not industrialized. To sophisticated forms emerging in a way resulting

mainly from the tens of generations of experiences generated by anonymous members of

local communities, in accordance with their own technical capabilities and with a specic

understanding of the forces and laws of nature. Rudofsky also noticed that many so-called

primitive solutions in vernacular architecture apply schemes and technologies to which the

modern architecture of highly developed centres was only mature in the twentieth century.

He cites "prefabrication, standardization, elastic constructions, natural ventilation, […],

light control" [1, p. 5] etc. As Rudofsky's exhibition and book has been very popular for

over half a century, he teaches us to perceive and understand architecture created "without

an architect" as a centuries-old building process in conditions of human proximity and

dependence on the natural environment and depending on its laws, cyclicality and

variability.

1 Bernard Rudofsky, born on 13.04.1905 near Ostrava, he graduated from architecture at Technische

Hochschule in Vienna (1928), from 1941 in New York, curator of many architectural exhibitions, author of

publications on architecture, lecturer at MIT, Yale, Waseda University in Tokyo [7].

21

2. Architecture by architects and architecture of information

What is the current state and what might the near future of architecture look like? e

conclusion that architects are currently designing buildings may seem trivial, but it may

stop to surprise us if we realize that in the near future such a state of aairs may change,

and the architect's profession may completely change. e architects of our generation are

convinced that they control and create architecture (especially its forms) and control the

direction of its future development. ey are convinced that the quality of architecture is the

result ofknowledge, experience and talent, and perhaps also inspiration. eir ambition is

to generate individual forms of expression and to send artistic messages of various forms of

complexity and randomness, and to apply them into the spaces of our cities and landscape.

e archetype of the architect – a modernist demiurge, capable of controlling and shaping

architecture and modelling individual and social life on the scale of very complex systems,

such as cities and societies, is constantly current and popular. We are still in the era of

"architecture created by architects", of course bearing in mind all the external factors limiting

architectural omnipotence– that is, the political, legal and economic factors in which the

architect functions, and whose inuence on the directions of development of our spaces

remain dominant. However, we can already observe a strong dri towards a new perspective

for architecture and the profession of architect: towards "information architecture". Since

the introduction of the rst computers to architectural practice in the 1980s, the eld

of architecture has increasingly been shaped by the imagination and knowhow of the

Fig. 1. Book cover – Bernard Rudofsky, Architecture Without Architects [by the author]

22

information world, soware engineers, sociologists, data analysts focused on university

and corporate research institutions dealing with urban studies and CAD design technology.

Architects quickly understood that computers were becoming an indispensable tool for the

proper analysis of the growing quantities of information related to the complex scale of their

tasks. e last twenty years of architecture has been a clear and decisive success for digital

technologies of urban structure analysis, and sociological research related to the space of

architecture, cities, etc., which support the design process.

e inuence of computer technology on the design of architectural forms in the period

of last twenty years can be called spectacular. It was a denite explosion of the architecture of

lines and planes, of computer-generated curves, delight in the possibilities of individualizing

architectural forms while maintaining the comparable cost of its production, although this

situation may have already passed its climax and is slowly moving towards another change.

Mario Carpo [5] described this style of line architecture and curves as "blob style", also known

as spline style or digital rationalization. "It became the hallmark of the rst digital age of the

nineties, […] With the collapse of the 'digital economy' the wave of digital enthusiasm and

technological optimism in the late 1990s suddenly lost its power, and many design professions

began to treat digital blobs as the most striking symbol of excess and technological delusions"

[5, position 229].

Carpo notes that new trends in the design world will be associated with the so-called

era of Web 2.0, which he describes as a "participatory network" – "When the dust seled,

the new spirit and some new technologies led to the so-called Web 2.0, which means

a participatory network, based on collaboration, interactivity, crowdsourcing and the

end user – for which individual content will be generated" [5, position 238]. However, he

adds that the transition to the mass network collaboration phase has not yet occurred –

with one exception – "Except avant-garde experiments and, more importantly, except the

technology family known as Building Information Modeling, or BIM – unanimously adopted

by the construction industry, though reluctantly accepted by academic and design-related

professions that strongly rejected the direction of technological and cultural development

that would weaken (or in fact transform) some of their traditional copyright privileges"

[5,position 238].

ese opinions indicate that we are now witnessing the clash of two tendencies: one aiming

at further technologicalisation of the design process supported by articial intelligence, and

the second "participatory" trend, arising in opposition, expressing anxiety about the loss of

subjectivity in the author's creative process. e future of architecture will depend on which

of these trends dominates the market.

3. Architecture aer architects

It becomes justiable to ask about the future of our profession at the moment when

the rst in the above tendencies will be able to dominate the architectural design market

as well as the investment process, and will aect the methods of selling the nal product,

23

i.e. buildings, ats, etc. Further technological development, in particular the automation of

design and construction processes, may go so far that it will be possible in the near future

to replace man by machines, both at the design and construction stage, and interestingly –

also when it comes to the use of buildings! It should be mentioned that in terms of building

function, a new type of facility has already been identied. e architecture of technology has

emerged in addition to residential, public, industrial and other known types of architecture.

New architectural objects appeared in our landscape in which the main user is not directly

man, but machines. It is the architecture of powerful automated warehouses, server rooms,

logistic centres, packing rooms, and other industrial facilities in which the production process

is robotic and digitally controlled. is topic is the leading subject of the issue 01/2019 of

Architectural Design, edited by Liam Young [6]. In the introductory article, he writes about

the phenomenon of the emergence of gigantic data centres of such companies as Facebook,

Google, Apple or Amazon built in Oregon: "ese ickering buildings are more than just

computational infrastructures, they are becoming the dening cultural constructions of our

age. At a time when our collective history is digital, these blank forms are our generation's

great library, our cathedral, our cultural legacy. Every era has had its own iconic architectural

typology. e dream commission was once the church, Modernism had the factory and then

the house; in the past decade we celebrated the decadent museum and the gallery. Now we

have the data centre" [6, p. 10].

e construction of these objects is based on the new logic and measure, man is not

areference point in this case: "Ancient crasmen once measured using parts of the human

body: the cubit is based on the length of a forearm; the inch, the length of a thumb. Le

Corbusier designed his buildings based around the Modulor, a scale he derived from the

proportions of the human body. We once understood our world through systems that

positioned ourselves, human scale, vision and paerns of occupation at the centre of

the structures that we design. In the age of the network, however, the body is no longer

Fig. 2. Examples of buildings printed using 3D printing technology – carried out in Shanghai by Shanghai

WinSun Decoration Design Engineering Co. [10]

24

thedominant measure of space; instead it is the machines that occupy the spaces that now

dene the parameters of the architecture that contains them – an architecture whose form

and materiality is congured to anticipate the logics of machine perception and comfort

rather than our own" [6, p. 11].

is type of building is still designed by an architect, but the jump towards the automation

of the design process is small in this case. It involves formalizing the technological process

and adapting to it the appropriate form and construction technology, laws of physics,

etc.Architecture will always be the product of a special kind of skill related to the ecient

use of these laws for utilitarian purposes to be achieved through the physical form of the

building. In the near future, these skills will be implemented not necessarily by an architect

or structural engineer, but by means of computers and appropriately programmed design

algorithms combined with large databases.

Technological progresses, which take place in the production of building materials and

methods of computer building design, both its construction and the entire set of installations

necessary for the proper functioning of the building, allow for increasingly precise control of

the functioning of the whole object as a real and functionally-oriented object. at is, adapting

it to external natural conditions – geographical, topographical, climatic conditions, as well

as controlling the assumed internal thermal, moisture, acoustic parameters of the object.

As a result of this process, buildings become more and more energy-ecient and adapted

to individual ergonomic and functional needs, and they are also cost-optimized in terms of

implementation and operation.

Fig. 3. Example of a building printed using 3D printing technology – by Shanghai WinSun Decoration Design

Engineering Co., Shanghai, China [10]

25

All types of design issues are now controlled and coordinated in constantly improving

BIM (Building Information Modeling) which is becoming one of the key aspects of the

construction and architectural design process. BIM soware allows you to accurately

coordinate the form of the building with installation projects, with the construction, with

the selection of the appropriate architectural elements, such as walls, stairs, windows, doors,

etc., and in eect gives you complete control of the whole, as well as individual subsystems

of the building. e future BIM building remains a fully-controlled system during all phases

of design, construction and operation. To paraphrase Le Corbusier, it becomes a new kind of

"machine for living in" in this process.

It is easy to imagine the automated production of such "machines" using contemporary

BIM design machines supported by the achievements of articial intelligence (AI). e

rst step to creating an automated production process is to create databases containing legal

regulations in the eld of local urban planning and construction law, then regarding social,

health and neighbourhood conditions (the task of psychology and sociology of architecture),

further – the system of local administration and the procedure for obtaining approval of the

documentation project. e next step is the databases of individual elds of construction

technology, from calculation methods to construction and nishing details related to all

construction sectors, as well as databases dening ergonomic minima of individual functions.

Such work is being carried out in many scientic institutes, e.g. in the French CSTB (French

Scientic and Technical Centre for Building) [3].

Fig. 4. A printed building completed in 2018 in Denmark by the COBOD company [11]

26

Fig. 5–6. e next phases of building printing – by Cobod [11]

27

Of course, all data containing examples of historical architecture should also be found

in databases in order to be able to use and develop the best proven solutions in each type

of building and to relate it to specic local cultural and climatic needs, etc. e next step is

to create expert systems that help to organize information hierarchically. is information

in turn will feed the next stage of the system, which is the simulation of the design process.

Its creation must be based on a thorough analysis of the process of making subtle design

decisions that assume the possibility of considering new data during the design process, as

well as the possibility of changing it (fragmentation, decomposition and self-modication),

that is, considering the opportunity to learn [2, p. 167].

Probably in the near future self-learning architectural soware of the new generation

AI-BIM (Articial Intelligence – Building Information Modeling), will be able to develop to

the point that it will be able to replace architects, structural engineers, and HVAC engineers

in design work. What's more, every entrepreneur, equipped with the appropriate AIBIM

soware, will be able to "do it yourself" design and construction. He will simply enter the

coordinates of the property boundaries, and fur ther – the parameters of the desired building –

that is, the appropriate number of apartments, rooms, number of oors, expected construction

cost per square metre, and the machine will analyze this data and suggest a solution to the

task, taking into account the laws of physics, building regulations, formal guidelines from the

local master plan, local climate, and the spatial conditions of the neighbourhood, as well as

nancial feasibility, etc. More advanced versions of the program will be able to oer additional

variants with individualized features of the building form, generated on the basis of algorithms

taken from analyzes of historical objects. Eventually, if the developer's ambitions are aimed

at further individualization of the architectural form, the generating process of forms can be

based on other types of algorithms, e.g. researching the demand for specic forms in a given

location among local community, based on conclusions resulting, for example, from big data

analysis2 . If, however, the formal result aims to surprise all connoisseurs of architecture with

a certain manneristic unpredictability and uniqueness, the generation of architectural forms

could be generated, for example, based on algorithms drawn from the theory of catastrophes3.

In the next stage, i.e. aer preparation the construction documentation, the AI-BIM

soware will send the project data to the appropriate computer in the Department of

Architecture of the City Oce, where the computer will instantly check compliance with

local law, and then automatically send a building permit, the nality of which will be

conrmed in time real-life computers by all parties and will not be subject to endless further

discussions, interpretations, cancellations, etc. e client will continue to press the next

2 "Big Data" is a trend to look for, collect and process available data. It is a method of legally collecting information

from various sources, and then analyzing and using it for your own purposes. As a result, a consumer prole

is created, which is later used, for example, to increase sales. e most important is the practical use of the

conclusions owing from them, and not the mere collection of data [8].

3 Catastrophe theory – mat. theory describing abrupt changes in the state of various systems. Particular

aention is paid to models showing resistance to small disturbances (structural stability). e author of the

disaster theory is Rene om (Stabilité structurelle et morphogenèse, 1972), and the prominent propagator of

it – E.C. Zeeman. e theory is used in physics and technology, as well as in sociology, economics, linguistics

and others [9].

28

buon on the keyboard, which will send the project to construction companies oering 3D

printing construction. e building will be printed in a short time, basically without the need

for human supervision.

e 3D printing technology for residential buildings is already up-to-date and applied in

practice. e rst such residential buildings in the USA, in China and in Europe have already

been constructed. Rening this technology and fully automating the design process is a maer

of a short time, maybe one generation, and probably our current students will in a decade or

so treat these current novelties as everyday practice.

Marketing and sale of oces spaces or apartments will be individualized – the oers will

be immediately sent to selected potential buyers. ese will probably be precisely targeted

sales oers, suitably selected in terms of personality traits for users of Google, Facebook,

Instagram and other social media, or similar tools generating information about users,

referred to as "Big Data". Proper analysis and ordering of these data in terms of adequately

selected psychological personality theory (e.g. OCEAN4 type or other, more extensive and

precise) [4] will allow screening of recipients and reaching a targeted sales oer to those

whose psychological prole guarantees acceptance of a given project. As a result, a quick

purchase will be not a surprise.

It is quite probable that the future of architecture will be such a pragmatic, albeit highly

sophisticated and individualized architecture of intelligent machines – devoid of the

traditionally understood artistic vision, intentions, individuality of the creator and emotions

deliberately caused by artistic play with form and material – architecture that is a post humanist

4 O.C.E.A.N. – one of the psychological personality theory, created by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae,

developed among others by prof. Lewis Goldberg (University of Oregon). eory assumes that human

personality can be described through a combination of ve features of e Big Five, these are: Openness

(openness to experience), Conscientiousness (conscientiousness), Conscientiousness (extraversion),

Agreeableness (agreeableness) and Neuroticism (neuroticism).

Fig. 7. 3D house in Chaanooga, Tennessee, USA, 2017, architect: WATG's Urban Architecture Studio

and Branch Technology [12]

29

incarnation of the contemporary Zeitgeist. is architecture will be able to adapt perfectly to

the natural environment, will implement the principles of sustainability in all possible aspects

and, very importantly, will be perfectly adapted to the needs of each end user, because it can

be perfectly anchored in its individual personality prole. It will probably guarantee the full

satisfaction of the user as well as local communities.

It is dicult to predict whether the above perspective of the development of architecture-

-related technology and the architectural profession will gain an advantage over tendencies

which contest this direction, but AI technology is progressing and its further development

seems inevitable.

References

[1] Rudofsky B., Architecture Without Architects. A Short Introduction to Non-Pedigreed

Architecture , Doubleday & Co. Inc., New York 1964.

[2] Brown D.C., Articial Intelligence for Design Process Improvement, [pdf] hp://www.

academia.edu.

[3] Poyet P., Delcambre B., Articial Intelligence and Building Engineering, Building Research

and Information, 09/1990.

[4] Johnson J.A., Big-Five model, [in:] V. Zeigler-Hill, T.K. Shackelford (eds.), Encyclopedia

of Personality and Individual Dierences, New York, Springer 2017, DOI: 10.1007/978-

3-319-28099-8_1212-1 2017.

[5] Carpo M., e Second Digital Turn. Design Beyond Intelligence, MIT Press, 2017.

[6] Young L., Neo-Machine Architecture Without People, Architectural Design, 01–02/2019,

Machine Landscapes. Architectures of the Post – Antropocene, John Willey and Sons, 2019,

DOI: 10.1002/ad.2379.

[7] e J. Paul Gey Trust, Bernard Rudofsky Papers, ca. 1910–1987, [online] hp://

archives2.gey.edu:8082/xtf/view?docId=ead/920004/920004.xml;chunk.id=ref8;

brand=default.

[8] hps://poradnikprzedsiebiorcy.pl/-czym-jest-big-data

[9] hps://encyklopedia.pwn.pl

[10] hps://www.3ders.org/

[11] hps://cobod.com/

[12] hps://all3dp.com/1/3d-printed-house-homes-buildings-3d-printing-construction/

If you want to quote this article, its proper bibliographic entry is as follow: Ingarde K., From Architecture Without Architects

to architecture aer architects, Technical Transactions, Vol.8/2019, pp.19–30.

... Despite the turbulent history of building design, the architectural profession continues to exist and, despite the onslaught of information technology, it seems safe for the time being. Nevertheless, some architects like Krzysztof Ingarden believe that "further technological development, in particular the automation of design and construction processes, may go so far that it will be possible in the near future to replace man by machines, both at the design and construction stage" [40] (p. 23). ...

Architects are required to have knowledge of current legislation, ergonomics, and the latest technical solutions. In addition, the design process necessitates an appreciation of the quality of the space and a high degree of creativity. However, it is a profession that has undergone significant changes in recent years due to the pressure exerted by the development of information technology. The designs generated by computer algorithms are becoming such a serious part of designers' work that some are beginning to question whether they are more the work of computers than humans. There are also increasing suggestions that software development will eventually lead to a situation where humans in the profession will become redundant. This review article aims to present the currently used, implemented, and planned computer technologies employed in the design and consider how they affect and will affect the work of architects in the future. It includes opinions of a wide range of experts on the possibility of computer algorithms replacing architects. The ultimate goal of the article is an attempt to answer the question: will computers eliminate the human factor in the design of the future? It also considers the artificial intelligence or communication skills that computer algorithms would require to achieve this goal. The answers to these questions will contribute not only to determining the future of architecture but will also indicate the current condition of the profession. They will also help us to understand the technologies that are making computers capable of increasingly replacing human professions. Despite differing opinions on the possibility of computer algorithms replacing architects, the conclusions indicate that, currently, computers do not have capabilities and skills to achieve this goal. The speed of technological development, especially such technologies as artificial superintelligence, artificial brains, or quantum computers allows us to predict that the replacement of the architect by machines will be unrealistic in coming decades.

... Некоторые из них склоняются к необходимости отказа от монологичности профессии и переходу к «постпрофессиональной эре» (Х. Садри), другие предрекают наступление «архитектуры после архитекторов» [5] благодаря развитию искусственного интеллекта и новых технологий, уравнивающих профессионалов и энтузиастов. Пытаясь обобщить дух времени, британский теоретик Т. Краминер констатировал, что использование «знаковых зданий и впечатляющих сооружений для "продажи" городов как глобально [востребованных] и идущих в ногу с рынком, для продажи жилья международным спекулянтам, для добавления лоска солидности и зрелищности откровенно коммерческим начинаниям оставило плохое послевкусие» [6, p. 11]. ...

• David C. Brown

This chapter presents some ways in which artificial intelligence (AI) research can be used to improve the way that agents (people or machines) design things (i.e. design process improvement).There are a variety of definitions of AI, influenced by the goals of the researchers involved (Russell and Norvig, 2003). The best known is Marvin Minsky's statement that it is the science of making machines do things that would require intelligence if done by humans.This highlights the common AI paradigm of producing some theory about how a task might be done: in terms of specifying the knowledge and reasoning, and possibly also details of sensing, action and communication.The theory is then implemented in some computational form (typically a computer program) to see whether it can exhibit the appropriate intelligent behaviour.The tasks studied are usually those for which no efficient solution is known, and usually (but not always) those which intelligent beings can solve. Some researchers focus on a more cognitive point of view: By 'artificial intelligence' I therefore mean the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977) while some seek to study AI in more absolute terms: ...studying the structure of information and the structure of problem solving processes independently of applications and independently of its realisation in animals or humans. (McCarthy, 1974) The area of 'AI in design' (AI-in-D) has flourished since the early 1980s. It attempts to use the techniques and approaches of AI to study design processes, most often engineering or architectural design. As it is so closely tied to AI, its researchers have also focused on different outcomes. The field has produced: • software systems that design artifacts; • software systems that provide assistance to designers (for example, by critiquing design choices); • theories about how designers reason; • studies and analyses of actual designer activities; • models and descriptions of natural categories of design activity (for example, routine parametric design, or configuration); • guidance about how to apply existing AI techniques to design problems. Most AI-in-D researchers believe that engineering design is not a mysterious art and that there are core reasoning 'skills', and specific types of knowledge that apply to the same type of design task (e.g. component selection), even across domains. An overview of the history of the AI-in-D field can be found by looking at the following sources: the collective Proceedings of the AI in Design conferences; the AI EDAM journal (Cambridge University Press); the IEEE Expert AI in Design special issues (Brown and Birmingham, 1997); Stahovich's (2001) survey ; and the Encyclopedia of Artificial Intelligence article on Design (Brown, 1992). The field has progressed over time by attempting to understand and replicate increasingly less-well understood design activities. Early work focused on parametric, routine and case-based design, moving gradually via configuration to functional reasoning and creative design, and from solo designers to teams. There is a vibrant group of researchers active in the AI-in-D area worldwide. It has its own major conference, the International Conference on Design Computing and Cognition (until recently the International Conference on AI in Design), lots of related specialised workshops, and its own Webliography and list of AIin- D books which can be found at http://www.cs.wpi.edu/Research/aidg/AIinD-hotlist. html http://www.cs.wpi.edu/Research/aidg/AIinD-books.html In this chapter, distinction will be made between: • how AI has contributed to producing better theories about design processes; • how AI can be involved in the process itself to help improve it; • how AI can be used to produce better processes. Artificial intelligence producing better theories When expert systems (Jackson, 1999) were first introduced, it was quite quickly noticed that an immediate benefit of studying an expert's reasoning and knowledge, in enough detail that a software system could be built to replace him or her, was that a previously private process became public and understandable. Sometimes that yielded enough knowledge to improve the process without developing a system. The field of AI-in-D has had a similar effect.Theories and models of design activities have been produced that make conjectures about exactly what kinds of knowledge and what kind of reasoning are necessary in different design situations. Once this is well understood, then this information can be taught, and design or design assistance systems built, all of which can improve design processes. The rest of this section provides a brief introduction to some of this work, and points to where further descriptions might be found.

• P Poyet
• B Delcambre

Poyet P., Delcambre B., Artificial Intelligence and Building Engineering, Building Research and Information, 09/1990.

Neo-Machine Architecture Without People, Architectural Design

• L Young

Young L., Neo-Machine Architecture Without People, Architectural Design, 01-02/2019, Machine Landscapes. Architectures of the Post -Antropocene, John Willey and Sons, 2019, DOI: 10.1002/ad.2379.

Bernard Rudofsky Papers, ca

• J The
• Paul Getty
• Trust

The J. Paul Getty Trust, Bernard Rudofsky Papers, ca. 1910-1987, [online] http:// archives2.getty.edu:8082/xtf/view?docId=ead/920004/920004.xml;chunk.id=ref8; brand=default.

If you want to quote this article, its proper bibliographic entry is as follow: Ingarde K., From Architecture Without Architects to architecture after architects

https://all3dp.com/1/3d-printed-house-homes-buildings-3d-printing-construction/ If you want to quote this article, its proper bibliographic entry is as follow: Ingarde K., From Architecture Without Architects to architecture after architects, Technical Transactions, Vol. 8/2019, pp. 19-30.

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Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335853290_From_Architecture_Without_Architects_to_architecture_after_architects